THE GOLDEN TOUCH

Long ago, there lived a very rich man called Midas. 

Besides being rich he was a king, and he had a little daughter called Marygold.

King Midas loved gold more than anything else in the world. 

He liked being a king, chiefly because he loved his golden crown. 

He loved, his daughter dearly too, and the more he loved her the more gold he wanted for her sake.

When King Midas saw the golden light of the sun at evening, he
wished it could turn everything into real gold. 

When Marygold came to him with a bunch of sweet yellow flowers, he would say, 

`If they were as golden as they look. They would be worth picking!’

Even the roses in his garden did not please him any more  

The largest and sweetest and most beautiful roses ever seen - because they were not made of gold. 

Although the king was very fond of music in his youth, the only music he loved now was the sound of gold coins, one against another.

At last, King Midas could not bear to touch anything that was not
gold. 

He used to go down to a secret room under his palace where he
kept his precious store. 

He would let himself in and count his gold pieces.

He would hold the bars of gold, and admire his gold cups and plates,until he could hardly bear to leave them.

Now in those days a great many wonderful things used to happen
just as they do today. 

One morning King Midas was in his treasure room when he noticed that the sun was shining into the room more brightly than usual. 

Not only that, but a stranger stood there, smiling at

him in the light of the sunbeam.

King Midas knew that he had locked himself in as usual, and so he guessed that his visitor was no ordinary person. 

The stranger looked at the gold pieces that the king was
counting. 

`You seem to be a very rich man’ he said.

`But it has taken me a long time to collect this gold,’ said King

Midas. 

`If I could live a thousand years, I might have time to get richer.’

`What! aren’t you satisfied?’ asked the stranger. 

`What else do you want?’ Midas thought carefully. 

This was a wonderful chance, and he felt that the stranger had magical powers.

`I am tired of collecting my riches so slowly’, he said. 

`I wish everything I touch could be turned into gold’.

`The Golden Touch!’ exclaimed the stranger. `Are you sure you
would never regret it?’

`How could I regret such a thing?’ said Midas. `It would give me
perfect happiness at last’.

`Very well, then’, the stranger said, as he turned to go.


`Tomorrow at sunrise you will find that you have the Golden Touch.’

The light of the sunbeam brightened so vividly that Midas closed

his eyes. 

When he opened them again, the stranger had gone.

Next morning, Kind Midas awoke before the dawn. 

He looked eagerly to see if his bed had been turned into gold. 

But no; it was exactly as it had been before. He lay, very disappointed, looking around his room.

Suddenly, the earliest sunbeam of the rising sun shone through the
window and up to the ceiling above. 

It seemed to reflect its-golden light towards him. Looking at the sheet on his bed, Midas was astonished to find that it had become cloth of gold. 

The Golden touch had truly come to him, with the first sunbeam.

King Midas got out of bed in excitement. 

He touched one of the legs of the bed as he did so - and it immediately became a golden pillar. 

He pulled the curtain at the window, and at once it became
golden, too. 

He put on his clothes, and found himself dressed in

golden cloth.

He took up his spectacles and put them on - and he found he
could see nothing at all. 

The glasses had turned into gold and he could not see through them. He took them off again.

`Never mind’, he thought to himself. 

`The Golden Touch is worth more than a pair of spectacles, and Marygold will be able to read to me’.

King Midas went downstairs and into the garden. 

He noticed that even the brass handle of the door became gold as soon as he turned it.

Then he went among the rose-trees that had always been his pride and joy in the past.

When he went in to breakfast that morning he felt more
hungry than usual. 

While he was waiting for his eggs to be ready,little Marygold came in crying bitterly. 

`Look, father!’ she cried, holding out a golden rose. 

`I went to pick you some rose and they are yellow and hard and their sweet scent is gone’.

`Never mind, my dear’, said her father. They are worth much

more like that. Sit down and eat your breakfast’.

He poured himself a cup of coffee as he spoke. The coffee pot was a golden one when he put it back on the table. 

Then he tried a spoonful of coffee, to see if it was sweet enough. 

But it had become liquid gold.

`Well’ he exclaimed. He was thirsty.

`What is the matter, father?’ asked Marygold.

`Nothing, child. Drink your milk,’ Midas said.

But the eggs that he tried to eat, the first, the bread, the butter all
the food was uneatable for the king, that morning.

`How am I to have any breakfast?’ he thought. `Such costly food is

before me, and I can eat nothing!’

He looked across the table at Marygold. She was eating happily,
her tears forgotten. 

She looked up, saw that something was wrong, and

came around to comfort her father.

`What is wrong, father?’ she asked.

Midas bent down and kissed his little daughter.

Then - what a terrible change came over Marygold! 

Her sweet little face turned to yellow gold, her lovely hair became gold metal,her little body hardened into a figure of solid gold. 

`Well Midas’, said the stranger. `How do you like having the Golden Touch?’

`I have lost everything I really loved’, said King Midas. 

I am full of sorrow and regret. Gold is of no use to me now’.

`So you have learnt something since yesterday?” asked the
stranger. 

`Now which is worth more - the Golden Touch or a cup of cold
water?’

`Oh, blessed water!’ exclaimed Midas, `Will I ever taste it again’.

The Golden Touch - or a piece of bread?’ the stranger said.

`A piece of bread’, answered Midas, `is worth all the gold on earth!’

`Gold-or your own little daughter?’ asked the stranger.

`Oh-my child, my child!’ cried poor Midas.

`I would not have given one hair of her head for the power to
change the whole earth into gold!’

The stranger looked seriously at King Midas.

`You are wiser than you were’, he said. `Your heart is still flesh and
7 blood. 

You know truly that the common things of life, which are within
everyone’s reach, are more valuable than riches. 

Tell me, do you want to keep the Golden Touch?’


`No, it is hateful to me now’, said Midas, passionately.

Economic Objectives 

The primary focus of economic objectives is on three important constituents of the business system, 
namely:

(a) The owners 
(b) The employees and
(c) The customers.

1) The owner(s) must get adequate return, on the capital invested and the risk 

undertaken by him or them in the form of profit or dividend. 

2) The employees must be adequately compensated through fair wages or salaries, allowances, bonus, and other welfare 

facilities in the form housing, medical and healthcare, education of children, recreational facilities, retirement benefits, etc. 

So that they devote heart and soul in organisation’s work 

and work in the spirit of doing it not as hired employees but as if they are doing their own work. 

3) Customers are the patrons of the business enterprise and their satisfaction must be uppermost in the mind of the businessmen. 

Customers feel satisfied if they are supplied with quality products at reasonable prices coupled with adequacy of regular supply, after sale service, courtesy, etc. 

 Aids to Trade

                       This function such as banking, transportation, insurance, ware-housing, advertising, etc. 

(a) Banking: 
                       Banks provide a device through which payments for goods bought and sold are made thereby facilitating the purchase and sale of goods on credit. 
                       Banks serve the useful economic function of collecting the savings of the people and business houses and making them available to those who may profitably use them.

(b) Transportation : 
                       Transport performs the function of carrying goods from producers to wholesalers, retailers, and finally customers.

(c) Warehousing: 
                        There is generally a time lag between the production and consumption of goods. 

                        This problem can be solved by storing the goods in warehouse. 
                     
                        Storage creates time utility and removes the hindrance of time in trade. 

(d) Insurance: 
                        Insurance provides a cover against the loss of goods in the process of transit and storage. 
                         An insurance company performs a useful service of compensating for the loss arising from the damage caused to goods through fire, pilferage, thief and the hazards of sea, transportation and thus protects the traders form the fear of loss of goods. 
                         It charges insurance premium for the risk covered.

(e) Advertising : 
                         Advertising performs the function of bridging the information gap about the availability and uses of goods between traders and consumers. 

Trade : 

                The term trade refers to the sale, transfer or exchange of goods and services and constitutes the central activity around which the ancillary functions like Banking, Transportation, Insurance, Packaging, Warehousing and Advertising cluster.

1)  Internal or Domestic Trade
2)  International or Foreign Trade


 Internal or Domestic Trade

                                                It consists of buying and selling of goods within the boundaries of a country and the payment for the same is made in national currency either directly or through the banking system. 

International or Foreign Trade
       
                                                It refers to the exchange of goods and services between two or more countries. International trade involves the use of foreign currency ( called foreign exchange) ensuring the payment of the price of the exported goods and services to the domestic exporters in domestic currency, and for making payment of the price of the imported goods and services to the foreign exporter in that country’s national currency (foreign exchange).

5) MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment for the purpose of efficiently accomplishing selected aims. 

Managers carry out the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. Managing is an essential activity at all organizational level.

The functions of managers’ provide a useful framework for organizing management knowledge. 


Planning: 
                The planning function involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategy for achieving those goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.

Organizing: 

It includes the process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom at what level decisions are made.

Commanding: 

It is the influencing of people so that they will contribute to organization and group goals. 

Leading involves motivating, communicating employees to accomplish goals and objectives of an organization

Controlling: It is the measuring and correcting of activities of subordinates to ensure that events conform to plans. 

It measure performance against goals and plans, shows negative 
deviations exit and by putting in motion actions to correct deviation, helps ensure accomplishment of plans.

4) Basic Approaches of Organisational Behavior

An Interdisciplinary Approach: 

It is integrating many disciplines. It integrates social sciences and other disciplines that can contribute to the Organizational 

Behavior. 

 Organizations must have people, and people working toward goals must have organizations.

Scientific Management Approach: 

The fundamental concern of the scientific management school was to increase the efficiency of the worker basically through 

good job design and appropriate training of the workers. 

A Human Resources (Supportive) Approach: 

It is developmental approach concerned with the growth and development of people toward higher levels of competency creativity and fulfillment, because people are the central resource in any organizations and any society. 

A Contingency Approach: 

Traditional management relies on one basic principle  there is one best way of managing things and these things can be applied across the board in all the instances.

A Systems Approach:

This implies that organization consists of many inter related and inter dependent elements affecting one another in order to achieve the overall results. 

3) Key Elements of Organisational Behavior

The key elements in organizational behavior are people, structure, technology and the 
external elements in which the organization operates. 

 (i )People


People make up the internal social system of the organization.

They consist of individuals and groups, and large groups as well as small ones. 

People are the living, thinking, feelings beings who created the organizations. 

i) Individual employee who are expected to perform the tasks allotted to them.

ii) Dyadic relationships such as superior-subordinate interactions

iii) Groups who work as teams and have the responsibility for getting the job done.

iv) People out side the organization system such as customers and government officials.


(II) Structure


Structure defines the official relationships of people in organizations. 

Different jobs are required to accomplish all of an organization’s activities. 

There are managers and employees, accountants and assemblers.

Some of the key concepts of organization structure are listed as below:

a) Hierarchy of Authority: 
                      This refers to the distribution of authority among 
organizational positions and authority grants the position holder certain rights including right to give direction to others and the right to punish and reward.

b) Division of Labor: 

                     This refers to the distribution of responsibilities and the way in which activities are divided up and assigned to different members of the organization is considered to be an element of the social structure. 

c) Span of Control: 
                  This refers to the total number of subordinates over whom a manager has authority

d) Specialization: 
                            This refers to the number of specialities performed within the organization. 

e) Standardization: 
                             It refers to the existence of procedures for regularly recurring events or activities

f) Formalization: 
                This refers to the extent to which rules, procedures, and 
communications are written down


g) Centralization: 
                 This refers to the concentration of authority to make decision.


 (iii) Technology

Organizations have technologies for transforming inputs and outputs. 

These technologies consist of physical objects, activities and process, knowledge, all of which are brought to bear on raw materials labor and capital inputs during a transformation process. 

The core technology is that set of productive components most directly associated with the transformation process. 

for example 
Production or assembly line in manufacturing firm. 

2) ORGANISATION BEHAVIOR CONCEPTS

Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, 

groups and structure have on behavior within organization. 
It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations.
 
It is a human tool for human benefit.
 
It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of organizations, such as business, government, schools and services organizations. 


It covers three determinants of behavior in organizations: Individuals, 
groups, and 
structure. 


OB is an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, 
in order to make organizations work more effectively. 

OB covers the core topics of motivation, leadership behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure 
and process, learning, attitude development and perception, change process, conflict, job design and work stress. 

                                             ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR

1) INTRODUCTION

·        

•            Organizations are social systems.
• ·         If one wishes to work in them or to manage them, it is necessary to understand how they operate.
• ·         Organizations combine science and people –technology and humanity.
• ·         Unless we have qualified people to design and implement, techniques alone will not produce desirable results.

  

Application layer

                      An application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies a group protocols and methods in each of the two models of computer networking, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP).

Layer 6: presentation layer

The presentation layer is layer 6 and serves as the data translator for the network. 

It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

The presentation layer is responsible for the following:

• Data encryption/decryption
• Character/string conversion
• Data compression
• Graphic handling

The presentation layer mainly translates data between the application layer and the network format. 

Data can be communicated in different formats through different sources. 

Thus, the presentation layer is responsible for integrating all formats into a standard format for efficient and effective communication. 

Layer 5: session layer

The session layer provides the mechanism for opening, closing and managing a session between end-user application processes.

i.e., a semi-permanent dialogue.

• A transport layer provides end-to-end or host-to-host communication services for applications within a layered architecture of network components and protocols.
• The transport layer provides services such as connection-oriented data stream support, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing.

Layer 3: Network layer

Layer 2: Data link layer

The data link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into frames (logical, structured packets for data). 

This layer is responsible for transferring frames from one host to another. 

It might perform error checking. This layer further consists of two sublayers : MAC and LLC.

Media access control

Media access control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2). 

The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium

 

e.g. Ethernet. The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a medium access controller.

Logical link control

The logical link control (LLC) data communication protocol layer is the upper sublayer of the data link layer, which is itself layer 2. 

The LLC sublayer provides multiplexing mechanisms that make it possible for several network protocols.

 

(IP, IPX, Decnet and Appletalk) to coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported over the same network medium. 

Layer 1: Physical layer

• This layer deals with the physical plugs and sockets and electrical specification of signals only.
• This is the medium over which the digital signals are transmitted. 
• It can be twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber, wireless, or other transmission media.

OSI protocols

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols are a family of information exchange standards developed jointly by the ISO and the ITU-T starting in 1977.
• While the seven-layer OSI model is still often referenced, of the protocols themselves only X.400, X.500, and IS-IS have had much lasting impact. 
• The goal of a series of open, non-proprietary network protocols is now met by the competing TCP/IP stack.

OSI protocols stacks are split into seven layers. 

Protocol Hierarchies

• The protocol stack is an implementation of a computer networking protocol suite.
•  The terms are often used interchangeably.
•  Strictly speaking, the suite is the definition of the protocols, and the stack is the software implementation of them.
• Individual protocols within a suite are often designed with a single purpose in mind.

• 

Hierarchical protocols is nothing new, but provides an interesting approach to the balance between scalability and performance. 

The most well known service in use today that uses a hierarchical protocol is DNS. 

The purpose of DNS is to translate a human friendly domain name, 

such as www.ietf.org, to its corresponding IP address (in this case 4.17.168.6). 

The DNS architecture consists of the following:

• Root name servers
• Other name servers
• Clients

Metropolitan area network(MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network larger than a local area network covering an area of a few city blocks to the area of an entire city, possibly also including the surrounding areas.

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks (see also LAN and WAN).

A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role similar to an ISP, but for corporate users with large LANs.

1. The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. 
2. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
3. A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. 
4. The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users. 
5. This level of service provided to each user must therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator, and some performance guarantees are normally specified.
6. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources (similar to a large LAN).
7. It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

Point-to-point Topology

 

 

• The simplest topology with a permanent link between two endpoints. 

• Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. 

• The value of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between the two endpoints.

   

   

   

Tree Topology

• Tree topology is structured like a tree in real world. 
• Tree structure has a root node, intermediate nodes and leaves. 
• Root node is the main or head node of the structure, and the leaves are the last nodes, which has no further child nodes. 
• This structure is arranged in a hierarchical form, any nodes can have any number of the child nodes. 

Mesh Topology

The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints.

Fully connected network

Fully connected mesh topology

• A fully connected network is a communication network in which each of the nodes is connected to each other. 
• In graph theory it known as a complete graph. 
• A fully connected network doesn't need to use switching or broadcasting

 

Ring Topology

        

 

1. A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the ring acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. 

2. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the ring. 

3. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring. 

4. When a device sends data, it must travel through each device on the ring until it reaches its destination. 

5. Every node is a critical link.In a ring topology, there is no server computer present; all nodes work as a server and repeat the signal. 

6. The disadvantage of this topology is that if one node stops working, the entire network is affected or stops working.

    

    

                              Microprocessor Architecture

Intel 8085 Pin Configuration



The 8085  Buses

n The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor that can address 64K Byte of memory.

n It has 40 pins and uses +5V for power. It can run at a maximum frequency of 3 MHz.

nThe pins on the chip can be grouped into 6 groups:

n Address Bus.

n Data Bus.

n Control and Status Signals.

n Power supply and frequency.

n Externally Initiated Signals.

n Serial I/O ports.

The Address and Data Bus Systems

n The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 – A15 which are unidirectional.

nThe other 8 address bits are multiplexed (time shared) with the 8 data bits.

n So, the bits AD0 – AD7 are bi-directional and serve as A0 – A7 and D0 – D7 at the same time.

n During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits during the early part, then during the late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits.

n In order to separate the address from the data, we can use a latch to save the value before the function of the bits changes.

The Control and Status Signals

n There are 4 main control and status signals. 

These are:

nALE: 

                Address Latch Enable. This signal is a pulse that become 1 when the AD0 – AD7  lines have an address on them. 

                It becomes 0 after that. This signal can be used to enable a latch to save the address bits from the AD lines.

nRD: Read. Active low.

nWR: Write. Active low.

nIO/M: 

            This signal specifies whether the operation is a memory operation (IO/M=0) or an I/O operation (IO/M=1).

nS1  and S0 : Status signals to specify the kind of operation being performed. Usually not used in small systems.